Time allocation pattern for household and expenditure saving Time allocation pattern for household and expenditure saving market activities by using economic value of time: A gender-market activities by using economic value of time: A gender-based analysis in Pakistan based analysis in Pakistan

Method of estimation of


Introduction
Economists argue that ignoring income generated by household work and expendituresaving market work introduces a bias in various areas of economic analysis."Inkind income" is significantly underestimated by not considering the productive household and expenditure-saving market activities in national accounts.Becker (1965) in his path-breaking article on "Theory of the Allocation of time" states that "the amount of time at work has never consistently been of much greater importance than time spent at other activities.However, allocation and efficiency of non-working time may be more important to economic welfare than the market time; the attention paid by economists to the latter dwarfs any paid to the former".The dynamics of allocation of time and its relation with household welfare can hence only be recognized by evaluating the time that individual members allocate to expenditure saving market and household work.
Across the globe, housework is "undervalued, underpaid, unprotected and poorly regulated," and is unrecognized if women perform it.The activities for which people receive remuneration are only counted as a part of national accounts as it give benefits to the economy; in contrast to household and expenditure saving market work which are females mainly perform, remains economically invisible and is considered a significant loss to the country.The participation of Pakistani women in household and expenditure-saving market work is usually not recognized, and they are considered economically inactive.When individuals perform these activities, they are free of cost, but as these activities are outsourced, they are given economic value.Arshad et al (2008) has found that the housework performed by them is essential for the family's well-being for rural and urban women of Pakistan.If their household work is outsourced, it would cost Rs.48,000/year for single urban households, whereas for rural households, it would cost Rs.25,800/year.
Women who perform household chores for full-day their contribution are not formally recognized, though their work is essential for the survival and wellbeing of family.Females mainly take care of the home, save family income, provide free care services to children and elders, and support their family in multiple ways, therefore, their economic contribution needs to be recognized.However, the housework is considered customary, obligatory, taken for granted, and is given little importance, although it represents financial support to the entire economy.Direct and indirect financial assistance and basic necessities of life to families are provided by women's household work, representing financial support to the entire economy.Although, Becker (1965) emphasizes that household work is crucial for economic welfare.It is evident from the argument placed by Becker and the study conducted by Arshad et al (2008) that housework performed by women is not recognized as women do not make a direct financial contribution to their families.Furthermore, monetary value is estimated neither to demonstrate the worth of work conclusively nor to demand a wage in return; instead, it is estimated to demonstrate the value of work performed by females who work without pay and give it recognition.Therefore, the work performed by individuals, especially females, may be considered an investment in the coun-Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 H. Nasir, A. Fatima and G. Zahid try's economic development and social welfare.
Table 1 shows the simple calculation based on minimum wage for household work and expenditure saving market work for both gender.Individuals, society, and government treat paid and unpaid market work (expenditure saving market work and household work) differently.The economy recognizes the contribution of formal businesses and industries, whereas expenditure saving market and household work are not recognized.Hence, it leads to prejudice against unpaid contributing family workers and those mainly responsible for household work.Paid market work tells us nothing about its social usefulness.In contrast, household work (such as cooking, child-care and elder care, firewood and water collection, and others) and expenditure-saving market activities (such as poultry raising and agriculture operation) are vital for human existence and serve as the foundation of the entire economy.
The principal objective of this study is to estimate the opportunity cost of time spent on household and expenditure-saving market work performed by individuals.The study will also estimate the determinants of allocation of time by using opportunity cost as a primary explanatory by exploring the impact of personal characteristics like age, education attainment, marital status, socio-demographic characteristics like child and adult dependency ratio, region, province and the personal and labour market characteristics of household head such as their education, employment status, etc.To estimate the opportunity cost for these activities and explore their determinants, individuals aged 9-60 are analyzed using the Labour Force Survey (LFS) of Pakistan for different years.Pseudo panel method proposed by Deaton (1985) is employed in this study by making cohorts of household and expenditure-saving market activities, region, and province.
In the past, research in this area remained limited and more attention was given to paid market work rather than expenditure-saving market and household work.This study draws attention towards a serious and neglected area of research that the work done by women, whether in the household or expendituresaving market work, has an economic value and should be counted as a part of national income.This research will fill the gap in knowledge about the time spent on expenditure saving market and household work and quantify the work -estimate its economic value and assess the contributions made by individuals, especially females, in the country's social development through their work.The present study is imperative as it discusses the opportunity cost of both https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 Time Allocation Pattern for Household and Expenditure Saving ... household and expenditure-saving market work and the determinants of time allocation by using opportunity cost as a primary explanatory variable.This research anticipates policymakers and the general public becoming aware of the economic contribution of their expenditure-saving market and household work.Which would eventually lead to gender equality around the globe.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: in section 2, literature of developed and developing countries is discussed; section 3 outlines methodology; in section 4, data sources and instrumental variable strategies are discussed; section 5 presents descriptive and empirical results and the last section presents the conclusion and policy implications of the study.

Opportunity Cost of Household and Expenditure Saving Market Work
A new significant shift in the shape of the family became visible during the second half of the twentieth century.Dual-career or two-earner family model was observed instead of housewifery as a division of domestic labour began to change (Esping-Andersen et al (2002); Quinlan and Shackelford (1980); Oppenheimer (1973); Cotter et al (1998)).Due to the expansion in job opportunities, women's participation in the labour force increased, consequently delaying their marriage age.Their access to higher tertiary education increased.The shift towards modern and postmodern values, which includes independence and selffulfillment, and at the same time, the division of labour between male duties and female-specific tasks, which was clearly distinguished within the couple, became feebler.The time is valuable for generating: i) the services used in household production (e.g.cooking, cleaning and organizing the house, washing and ironing clothes), ii) wage produced from market work that generates income and iii) subsistence foods and other items production that are unpaid in a peasant family with a separate income (Bennett 1990).
Household work should be judged worth both economically and psychologically, as argued by many researchers (Clarke and Murphy (1982); Robeyns (2005); Champ et al (2003).Economically, the contribution of housework is substantial to national income, or it is considered that domestic workers may have a value that can increase national income.At the same time, Donald and Hamermesh (2009) analyzed the psychological research results and found that workers involved in household production can afford to sacrifice their leisure time which is lower than formal workers who work in an office.
Swedish and Danish time-use data were used by Kerkhofs and Kooreman (2003) and to estimate household production models that allow the possibility of process benefits.It was found from both types of research that housework is measured by the time spent on a wide array of activities, including mundane tasks such as cleaning and laundry, cooking, gardening, and do-it-yourself work that often constitute hobbies.According to the UNDP report (1995) the burden of unpaid and paid work are distributed unequally between men and women.As men are involved in paid work, they receive the lion's share of income and economic recognition of their work, while women's work remains unpaid, unrec-Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 H. Nasir, A. Fatima and G. Zahid ognized, and undervalued.Cleaning, shopping, cooking, are traditional household activities performed by women in and around the household.In contrast, in most developing countries, women spent their time gathering wood, fetching water, and tending subsistence land, producing foodstuffs for consumption in their households.
The Great Britain data was used by Stratton (2012), which supports Becker's model of intrahousehold specialization.The study indicates that housework is a "necessary evil" and the spouse with a lower opportunity cost of time in the market devotes more time to home production.The decision to use a maid service has a negative relation with the opportunity cost of maid services, whereas positive relation exists for the time spent by a couple on weekends to perform primary household duties.Men's labour supply and opportunity cost of time does not have a significant association with the time he allocates to housework.Whereas a women's opportunity cost of time has a positive and significant association with his spouse's weekend housework time and a negative and significant association with her weekday housework time.
Hence, intrahousehold time allocations are significant in determining opportunity cost in which women's opportunity cost of time matters more than men's.Hersch and Stratton (1994) conducted their research on American dualearner households and found that if the share of husband in household income is higher, he spends less time on housework, whereas his wife spends more time on housework.Stancanelli and Stratton (2023) determined intrahousehold time allocation of housework by using the time diary data of Great Britain and France and analyzed that women's opportunity cost of time matters more than men's.Further, to this couple's opportunity cost of time is highly associated with the decision to hire a maid and the availability of time-saving appliances.Pollak (2011) proposed a detailed critique of Beckerian approach but one assumption used by him was that either market time or home production time has no process benefits or at least no differential process benefits are associated with it.Therefore, the goods produced are only valued for production while the time spent on that activity is priceless.This assumption is standard for labour supply that the individuals who perform market work is due to remuneration received in return, whereas housework is a necessary task that everyone would prefer someone else to perform it as no one likes it.Brines (1994) supports theory known as "doing gender" from the substantial literature of Sociology and explores that women who earn relatively higher wages may contribute more time to housework to demonstrate their feminine side.Further to this, he suggests that social benefits are associated with performing housework.
The past as well as current research on domestic help industry and home appliances is limited.The economists have focused on the women's labour supply which is due to the positive impact of alternative inputs (domestic help industry and home appliances) to domestic production (Suen 1994;Cortes and Pan 2013;Cortes and Tessada 2011;Coen-Pirani et al 2010).Cortes and Tessada (2011) found that the availability of maid services, instrumented with migration flows, increases the labour supply of high earning women between 4 and 20 minutes a week.It was suggested that there was a modest decrease in housework of about 7 minutes a week.The role of men as either potential providers or consumers https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 Time Allocation Pattern for Household and Expenditure Saving ... of household services is not reported in these studies.Hamermesh (2007) use time diary and expenditure data survey of United States for 1985 and 2003 and analyzed the mix of inputs for the working age population.The linear input demand equations were estimated in which the raw food materials that make up meals and time allocated for purchasing food, preparing meals, eating them and then cleaning afterwards were specified as inputs.He used income and couple's value of time as his explanatory variables and concluded that income has a positive effect on all inputs and the opportunity cost of time has negative effect on production time of eating, nevertheless little scope for substitution between the purchased and home-produced inputs exists.

Methodology
The study has adopted the following techniques to estimate opportunity cost and the determinants of time allocation.
Estimating Opportunity Cost of Time This method was given by James Jr (1996).He has used the wage rate and hours allocated to activities (household work and expenditure-saving market work) to obtain opportunity cost, and it is formalized as Where OC represents the opportunity cost of household/ expenditure saving market work, HR is the average number of hours/week devoted to household/expenditure saving market work , and MinWage is the individual's minimum wage1 rate/ week.

Pseudo Panel Technique
The Pseudo panel technique is an alternative to using panel data for estimating fixed effect models when only independent repeated cross-section data is available.The cohorts are observed in pseudo panel i.e. stable groups of individuals rather than individuals over time and individuals are replaced by their intra cohort means.Cross section of different years i.e., 1994, 1999, 2006, 2014, and 2017 is taken from LFS and is pooled for estimation.LFS does not survey the same household every year; hence true panel does not exist, and therefore pseudo panel technique is applied to overcome this problem.Though it is not a true panel, it has advantages over simple cross-section and time series data.This technique is applied as it can explain past characteristics while simultaneously predicting future behavior compared to simple cross-section data.
Furthermore, compared to the repeated cross-section, the number of individuals or households covered and the time period spanned is large in pseudo panel, https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 however, due to the non-availability of individual histories, which requires the construction of instruments or model transformation to first difference, which is absent from the data.Panel data requires assessing the influence of opportunity cost on household hours and expenditure-saving market hours.In order to explore the changes in average household income, the marital status of individuals of households would help get the historical perspective about household hours and expenditure saving market hours which can be traced back over time, and it is the only restriction this study faces.
It was found by Deaton (1985) that, as compared to the genuine panel, pseudo panel do not endure attrition problems and they are available over long periods as compared to the genuine panel.The use of cohort was introduced by Deaton (1985), and he estimated the empirical relationship by using common characteristics like sex, date of birth, region etc. which is shared by the group of individuals, known as cohort.The problem of heterogeneity is common in cross section data but this technique reduces this problem.By following Deaton this study also applied pseudo panel technique by using household activities and expenditure-saving market activities, region, and province as cohorts.
To estimate this study uses the following simple model Where Wit is a (K*1) vector of the explanatory variable, and it is assumed to be exogenous, i is an index of individuals, and t is time.The above equation cannot be analyzed as the same households are not surveyed yearly; therefore, true panel is unavailable.Cohort C is based on household and expenditure saving market activities; region and province are identified by usingDeaton (1985) technique as each individual i is a member of one and only one cohort for each t.Averaging over the cohorts gives By assuming the size of the group c at time t is nct then the mean value of all analyzed Wit's in cohort c at time t can be given as This data is now a pseudo panel of iterated observations over T periods and C cohorts.For the construction of pseudo panel, the cohorts/cells are averaged out for each available cross-section, then they are computed where the cells are defined as household activities codes and expenditure saving market activities codes, region and province codes for the households who are involved in these activities.To analyze the determinants of household hours/week or expenditure saving market hours/week, a simple regression is applied after making pseudo panel due to repeated values over the cross-section.

Model specification and data sources
The factors influencing the allocation of time for expenditure saving market and household work will be estimated using opportunity cost as a primary explanatory variable.The factors influencing time allocation for these can be modeled as Where T ime A lloc is used as a dependent variable and it is measured in hours per week.As far as explanatory variables are concerned, age is used to show the impact on household and expenditure-saving market hours.As age increases, expenditure saving market hours and household hours upsurges because with the rise in age, the responsibilities of individuals may also increase.
OC f and OC m represent the opportunity cost of females and males, respectively.It is estimated by using formula (A) as defined in section 3. Female opportunity cost may positively impact time allocated to household work as in traditional society, and they are held responsible for household chores.Therefore, despite of higher opportunity cost, they prefer to remain at home, which upsurges their household work hours.Contrary to this, the rise in the female opportunity cost may increase her participation in paid market work and decrease her household work hours.The opportunity of males may positively impact his household hours as the household activities in which he is involved are necessary for household consumption and are usually performed outside the home, which may increase his household hours due to the patriarchal system of society.
Contrary to this, the higher his opportunity cost, the greater his participation in paid market work will decline his household hours.Female opportunity cost may positively impact expenditure-saving market hours as the rural residents earn their income from agricultural activities, and women participate in these activities as unpaid contributing family workers to save labour cost.Moreover, their home-based work (such as knitting, embroidery, sewing, etc.) may be used for family welfare.Contrary to this, an increase in her opportunity cost may increase her participation in paid work leading to reduce in her Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 expenditure-saving market hours.An upsurge in the opportunity cost of a male will increase his expenditure-saving hours as the income which is earned from these activities is considered as a male contribution to household income.Moreover, there are certain activities in which only males participate, which leads to rise his expenditure-saving market hours instead of declining.Opposing to this, the higher the male opportunity cost, the greater his participation in paid market work will be, leading to a decline in his expenditure-saving market hours.
Marital status here represents unmarried, married, and widowed/divorced individuals.Whatever a female's marital status, she is held responsible for performing household chores which may increase her household hours.Conflicting to this, it may negatively affect her household hours since they might not have household responsibilities or their participation in the labour market increases due to economic reasons.A positive relation between unmarried males and household hours may exist as he may not have family responsibilities depending on the socio-economic condition of the household.In traditional society, males are the leading economic providers, which may decline their household hours, and their participation in paid market work will increase.
The marital status of women may positively influence their expendituresaving market hours since, due to cultural norms and traditions, especially in rural and pari-urban regions, they work in fields and assist in the family business.Dissimilar to this, a female's marital status may negatively impact her expenditure-saving market hours as their participation in paid market work may increase due to inflation, or higher household responsibilities may decline her expenditure-saving market hours.Whatever the male's marital status, it may reduce his expenditure-saving hours as he is responsible for supporting his family.On the other hand, males who are dwellers of rural and underdeveloped areas may rely on seasonal income or contribute to agricultural activities to save labour costs which may increase their expenditure-saving market hours.
Education is represented here by the levels of education, such as no formal education, Primary, Secondary, Graduation.As the years of female education increase, it may harm her household and expenditure-saving market hours.Due to the rise in inflation, their participation in formal and informal sectors may increase and they may also use their education by participating in paid market work.Contrary to this, it may positively affect her household hours as females have taken most of the household responsibilities, which increases her household hours.Expenditure-saving market hours of females may increase with a rise in education due to fewer job opportunities available and lower remuneration offered to them, especially in rural areas; therefore, they assist in the family business as unpaid contributing family workers.An increase in the level of education of males decreases their household hours and expenditure, saving market hours as he has more employment opportunities in paid market work as compared to their female counterparts.
The number of dependents are presented by the number of children under age 6, the number of children age 6-10, 11-14 and number of adults above 65 years, respectively.As the number of children and adults in a family surge, the female household hours may also increase as the burden of household activities such as child bearing and rearing, taking care of adults, and cooking may in-https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 Time Allocation Pattern for Household and Expenditure Saving ... crease as they are held responsible for performing these activities.An increase in the number of children and adults may decrease expenditure-saving market hours for females as the responsibility of child bearing and rearing and taking care of adults relies on her shoulders.
On the other hand, if the number of children of age 6-10 and 11-14 years increases in a household, the expenditure saving market hours of females may increase as young females of the household may share the household responsibilities.An increase in the number of children and adults may decrease male household hours and expenditure saving market hours as a responsibility of earning on males may increase to support his family.
If the male household head is not educated, female household hours may increase as she is responsible for household chores.While contrary to this in the case of an educated male, the chances for female household members to complete their desired education and their participation in the labour market may also be encouraged to complete their education which may decline her household hours.Whereas if the female household head is educated, then she may distribute household duties among other female household members, which may increase the household hours of other females and decline head household hours.
Contrary to this, if female household head is educated then she may encourage other female household members to complete their desired education and their participation in paid market work will be encouraged which may decline their household hours.If male/female household head is educated then household hours of males will decline as more emphasis will be paid towards their education attainment so he can get decent job in order to support his family in future or his participation in labour market will be encouraged.
Employment status is represented here as regular paid employee and unpaid family worker.Household head employment status plays an important role in time allocated to expenditure saving market work and household work.If household head is a regular paid employee then it may have a negative impact on household hours and expenditure saving market hours of both gender as socio economic condition of the household may get better.Moreover, participation of other male members in paid market work may be encouraged.If male household head is an unpaid employee then household hours and expenditure saving market hours of both gender may decrease as they may now participate in paid market work in order to support their family.
Relationship of household income with household hours and expenditure saving market hours of both gender may be positive.Female household hours and expenditure saving market hours may decline as the socio economic condition of household may improve.Whereas, male participation in these activities will be withdrawn and their participation in paid market work may be encouraged or they may acquire their desired education.
Across region, rural region is taken as a reference category.Female individuals residing in urban region may have a positive or negative effect on household hours depending on the cultural norms and traditions of the urban region.Whereas, male individuals residing in urban region may have a negative effect on his household hours due to increase in inflation and more opportunities are available in urban region which may increase his participation in paid market Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 H. Nasir, A. Fatima and G. Zahid work.Contrary to this, it may have a positive effect on his household hours as the activities which are necessary for household consumption are usually performed outside the home and due to cultural norms and traditions and worst socio-economic conditions these activities are performed by males.Individuals residing in urban region may have negative effect on expenditure saving market hours as there are more employment opportunities available for them.
Across provinces, KPK is taken as a reference category.Individuals residing in Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan may have positive or negative relation with their expenditure saving market and household hours depending on the custom, tradition and opportunities available in these Province.The data used in this study is taken from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) of Pakistan for the years 1994, 1999, 2006, 2014 and 2017 conducted by Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS).In this study the opportunity cost of expenditure saving market and household work are examined for both male and female.The determinants of time allocation for expenditure saving market and household work are examined by using opportunity cost as main explanatory variable.

Results
In this section opportunity cost of expenditure saving market work and household work and the opportunity cost of these activities are examined in detail.
Descriptive Statistics Figure 1 shows opportunity cost of household work for both gender which has increased over the years.Opportunity cost of female household work is higher as compared to males since the responsibility of performing household work lies on her shoulders.Opportunity cost of male household work has also increased over the years as household activities in which he participates are necessary (such as firewood collection, shopping and marketing, etc.) for household consumption and are performed outside house.Due to patriarchal system of the society his household hours increases which increases opportunity cost of his household work.
Opportunity cost of expenditure saving market work for both gender can be analyzed from figure 2 and it has increased over the years.There is a minute difference between the opportunity cost of male and female but it has increased for males in recent years.In rural areas most of the households rely on agriculture activities and earn their income from these activities, therefore they work as unpaid contributing family workers to save the labour cost.Moreover, household head also encourage other family members to participate in these activities which increase opportunity cost of their work.Opportunity cost of female increases due to agricultural activities and home based work, whereas there are certain agriculture activities which are only performed by males and the income earned from these activities is considered as male contribution in household income which increases his opportunity cost.Opportunity cost of female expenditure saving market work increases from Rs.4,863 to Rs.29,705/week, whereas for males it increases from Rs.7,779 to Rs.29,853/week.

Empirical results
The determinants of time allocation across different activities given in equation (I) and (II) are presented in table 2 (a and b) and table 3 (a and (b) for both gender.Table 2 (a) represents the determinants of female household work.As the opportunity cost of female household work increases the time devoted to household work by her increases instead of decreasing as in traditional society they are held responsible for performing household chores.Moreover, there are fewer opportunities for females in paid market work and they are offered lower remuneration which also affects their household activities, therefore inspite of higher opportunity cost they prefer to remain at home.
It is also assumed that women are rational economic participants who make choices on the basis of cost and benefits with full knowledge of opportunity cost.It is also found by Arshad et al (2008) that the housework performed by women plays a vital role in household well-being and it attempts to ensure that if all women participate in labour market then it will have negative effect on her dependents and the tasks which are traditionally performed by her.Increase in the opportunity cost of female household work increases her household hours Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 H. Nasir, A. Fatima and G. Zahid by 6.15 hours/week.
Whether a female has no education, lower or higher education it leads to decline their household work hours.As the inflation has increased over the year which has increased female labour force participation in both informal and formal work, therefore the time allocated by them in housework has declined.Due to labour saving technologies and easy food preparation has further declined female household work hours as compared to earlier years.Moreover, in lower income families male members of the household are unemployed or have seasonal income and rely on the income of female household members which leads to decline her household work hours.It is observed form the study conducted by Arshad et al (2008) that household responsibilities lies on shoulders of females and those who devote themselves to do best for their children are considered as inactive i.e. if they have paid job then their household work effects.
Females whether unmarried, married and widow/divorced are responsible for performing household work as they have taken most of the household responsibilities as compared to their male counterparts.Hence no matter how much the opportunity cost of household activities is higher it increases their household hours.Increase in the unmarried, married and widow and divorced females increases their household hours by 15 hours/week, 26.9 hours/week and 22.08 hours/week respectively.
Increase in the number of children of age 6-10 and 11-14 increases the burden of household work.Most of the household activities especially child bearing and rearing and cooking are performed by females hence their work hours increases.Increase in the number of children of age 6-10 and 11-14 increases female household hours by 3.3 and 9.8 hours/week respectively.In the process of social upbringing family is the first tier and mother plays an important role in moral and civic upbringing of her children as it is evident from the study of Arshad et al (2008).
Increase in the household income declines female household hours by 4.03 hours/week.Female household hour decreases as the socio-economic condition of the household will get better as they may now invest in labour saving technologies and may hire a maid.If male household is a paid employee means household head is having a secure job which may lower the household work hours of females as they have more to invest in maid and labour saving technologies.Whereas, if male household is an unpaid employee than female household hours will decline as their participation in paid market work may increases in order to support their family.If male household is a paid employee then female housework hours decreases by 26.6 hours/week and if male household head is an unpaid employee then her household hours decreases by 88.5 hours/week.
If female household head is educated as well as employed specifically if she is mother then household chores will be performed by other females or young females of the household leading to increase their household work hours.It is found from the study of Arshad et al (2008)) that young girls start learning household skills from early ages as their mothers train them for performing the household chores.Moreover, education is necessary for women as educated women teach their children and mould them into good citizens.
As the number of females residing in urban areas increases their household 36 Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10.54784/1990-6587.1499 Published by iRepository, June 2023 Time Allocation Pattern for Household and Expenditure Saving ... hours also increases as in urban region due to nuclear family setup, high inflation and increase in worst socio-economic condition in recent years have forced them to perform most of the household chores themselves.Females residing in Sindh and Balochistan may have a positive and significant impact on household hours.
In each province especially in rural and underdeveloped areas most of the household chores are performed by females.Increase in child/adult care and cooking activities will increase female household work hours as these activities require more time as they are time intensive, whereas the activities which have negative effect on her household hours is because they are not time intensive.Increase in child/adult care and cooking activities will increase female household work hours as these activities require more time as they are time intensive, whereas the activities which have negative effect on her household hours is because they are not time intensive.
The determinants of male household work are presented in table 2 (b).Increase in the opportunity cost of male household work increases his household hours instead of declining since the activities in which he participates are necessary for household consumption and are usually performed outside the house.Due to patriarchal system and veiling factors of the society increases the opportunity cost of these activities and does not reduce male involvement in these activities, hence leading to increase the male household work hours.Increase in the opportunity cost of male increases his household work hours by 5.8 hours/week.
If the male is not educated then his household hours will decline.Whether he is uneducated or educated he has more job opportunities in paid market work as compared to her female counterparts.Moreover, they can also migrate in search of job and in traditional society he is responsible for supporting his family.Household hours of uneducated males decrease by 13.6 hours/week.As compared to married and widow/divorced males unmarried males does not have family responsibilities which leads to decline his household work hours.
Increase in the household income decreases male household work hours as their participation in paid market work would be encouraged depending on the socio-economic condition of the household.Increase in the household income decreases his household work hours by 3.9 hours/week.If male household is a paid employee then household work performed by male will be discouraged and their participation in paid market work will be encouraged.Whereas, if male household is an unpaid employee then his household work hours will be discouraged as they would participate in paid market work to support their families.If male household head is a paid employee then male housework hours decreases by 43.3 hours/week and if male household head is an unpaid employee then his housework hours decreases by 81.6 hours/week.
Household activities performed by males have a negative and significant effect on his household work hours as these activities have declined due to labour saving technologies and improvement in standards of living (fetching water and firewood collection).In case of shopping and marketing especially in urban areas burden has been shifted towards females or due to technological advancement some items can be purchased online which has reduced the burden of male Business Review: ( 2023 The determinants of expenditure saving market work hours are presented in table 3(a) and (b) for both male and female.Increase in the opportunity cost of female increases her expenditure saving market hours instead of declining as Pakistan is an agrarian country and most of the rural households earn their income from these activities.Therefore, women participate as unpaid contributing family workers to save the labour cost and their home based work is also used for family welfare.Increase in the opportunity cost of female increases her expenditure saving market hours by 7.001 hours/week.
Whether women has acquired no education and has acquired training like TVET or has higher education it leads to decline her expenditure saving market  hours as they will make use of their education and their participation in paid market work might increase.Whatever the marital status of women is it will increase her expenditure saving market hours as due to social norms and conditions especially in rural and pari urban areas they work in fields, assist in family business and money earned from these activities is considered as contribution of male earning rather than female earning.Increase in the unmarried, married and widow/divorced female increases their expenditure saving market hours by 28.2, 50.5 and 45.6 hours/week.Increase in the number of children of age 6-10 and 11-14 years increases their expenditure saving market hours as household responsibilities may be shared by younger females residing in the household.It is also observed from the study of Arshad (2008) that young girls start learning household skills from early ages as their mothers train them for performing the household chores Increase in the number of adults decreases female expenditure saving market hours as the https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 Time Allocation Pattern for Household and Expenditure Saving ... adults need proper care and attention especially if they are sick and the responsibility of taking care of adults lies on female shoulders.Increase in the number of children of age 6-10 and 11-14 years increases their expenditure saving market hours by 6.4 and 14.4 hours/week respectively and increase in the number of adults decreases their expenditure saving market hours by 16.9 hours/week.Increase in the household income will decrease female expenditure saving market hours as the socio-economic condition of the household will get better and female work will not be required.If male household head is a paid employee then socio-economic condition of the household will get better which will decrease her expenditure saving market hours.Whereas, if male household head is an unpaid employee than paid market hours of female will increase so she can support her family which will decline her expenditure saving market hours.If male household head is a paid employee then expenditure saving market hours of female will decrease by 53.7 hours/week and if male household head is an unpaid employee than her expenditure saving market hours will decrease by 68.1 hours/week.Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499Published by iRepository, June 2023 H. Nasir, A. Fatima and G. Zahid Female residents of Sindh have a positive and significant effect on her expenditure saving market hours especially if there are residents of rural and pari urban areas since they are mostly engaged in home based and agricultural activities.The activities which have a negative and significant effect on female expenditure saving market hours is due to cultural norms and traditions.Social restrictions hinder their participation in training programs which are consequently overlooked and it limits their knowledge as well as use of improved technology decreases.Moreover, due to lack of health and hygiene facilities and harassment issues their participation declines.
Increase in the opportunity cost of male increases his expenditure saving market hours instead of declining as they are mostly involved in informal sector as this sector is large in Pakistan.Most of the rural households earn their income by participating in expenditure saving market activities and their contribution is considered as a male earning in household income.Labour cost is also saved by participation of other household members.Moreover, there are certain activities such as driving a tractor, operating heavy machinery or selling products in markets outside the villages are only performed by men.Increase in the opportunity cost of male increases his expenditure saving market hours by 6.5 hours/week.
If unmarried male increases in a household then his expenditure saving market hours may also increase as he does not have any family responsibilities as compared to married and widow/divorced males.Increase in number of unmarried male may increase his expenditure saving market hours by 18.23 hours/week.Increase in the household income will discourage male participation in expenditure saving market work and his participation in paid market work will be encouraged.Moreover, socio-economic condition of the household will get better and his participation in expenditure saving market work will not be needed.Increase in household income decreases male expenditure saving market hours by 3.8 hours/week.If male household head is an unpaid employee then his participation in expenditure saving market work will decline and his participation in paid market work will increase so he could support his family.
There exists positive and significant relationship for male residents of Balochistan.It may be due to fewer employment opportunities available to them and it also depends on the cultural norms and traditions of the province.Increase in the male residents of Balochistan increases his expenditure saving market hours by 3.2 hours/week.Expenditure saving market activities have a negative and significant effect on male expenditure saving market hours due to increase in rural urban migration and increase in the job opportunities of non-agriculture sector.

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
In this study determinants of time allocation are discussed by using opportunity cost as main explanatory variable.Increase in the opportunity cost of female increases her household work hours and expenditure saving market hours by 42 Business Review: (2023) 18(1):24-47 https://ir.iba.edu.pk/businessreview/vol18/iss1/2DOI: 10. 54784/1990-6587.1499

Fig. 2 :
Fig. 2: : Author's own estimation from LFS data of different years

Table 1 :
Opportunity cost of Expenditure Saving Market and Household Work/Week represents the weekly hours, and the subscripts s represent activities i.e. household work and the expenditure saving market work.-OCf and OC m represent the opportunity cost of time for females and males respectively.-PC represents personal characteristics, such as age, age2, marital status, and education attainment.-SD presents socio-demographic determinants such as the number of children less than 6 years, the number of children of age 6-10 years, region, and province.
-HH represents the household head's personal and labour market characteristics, i.e., his/her education, age, employment status, etc.
Figure1: Opportunity Cost of Household Work Time Allocation Pattern for Household and Expenditure Saving ...
Table 2b part 1: Determinants of Male Household Work Table 2b part 2: Determinants of Male Household Work